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Personality and Social Psychology Review
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Age and Birth Cohort Differences in Self-Esteem: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis

Jean M. Twenge

Department of Psychology, San Diego State University

W. Keith Campbell

Department of Psychology, University of Georgia

A meta-analytic review finds that college students' self-esteem increased substantially between 1968 and 1994 when measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Children's scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) show a curvilinear pattern over time, decreasing from 1965 to 1979 and increasing from 1980 to 1993. Children's SEI scores are directly correlated with social statistics (e.g., divorce rate, unemployment) for the corresponding years. Analyses for age differences find that SEI scores decrease slightly during the transition from elementary school to junior high and then rise progressively through high school and college. RSE scores increase steadily with age. Results are discussed in terms of the antecedents of self-esteem, including social acceptance, competencies, and the culture of self-worth.

Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 5, No. 4, 321-344 (2001)
DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_3
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